Financial Reporting Assignment - Social and Environmental Reporting Essay

Financial Reporting Assignment - Social and Environmental Reporting - Essay Example In fact the company calls itself â€Å"a leader in sustainability†, one of the most important aspects in determining an organization’s commitment to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and good social and environmental reporting. Faithful representation is defined as "correspondence or agreement between the accounting measures or descriptions in financial reports and the economic phenomena they purport to represent" (www.goliath.ecnext.com). On the other hand neutrality is defined as â€Å"the avoidance of bias in selection and presentation of information and balanced in accounts of performance† (www.plan.aau.dk). Wal-Mart has been questioned by many critics and environmental experts on its CSR policies and initiatives that include its commitment to using only the renewable energy. In fact the critics argue that there are factual errors and inadequacies in these reports published by Wal-Mart. For instance the recent SERs published by the company lack accuracy and the gaps are obviously disturbing in some instances. The degree of faithful representation in Wal-Mart’s SERs needs to be examined against the backdrop of its commitment to sustainability. The concept of environmental sustainability is associated with CSR policies and initiatives of the company. For example Wal-Mart claims to care for its 2.1 million associates, as the employees are called here, on a basis of equanimity and the extended families of these associates are entitled to the same degree of care. The problems that Wal-Mart is faced with in its SERs can be regarded as those directly related to faithful representation and neutrality in preparing those documents. Thousands of retail stores operating under many domains in many countries are naturally prone to making mistakes in gathering data and representing facts. Despite Wal-Mart’s efforts to integrate the global operations by using a single platform

Campaign Speech Essay Example for Free

Campaign Speech Essay To our beloved beautiful, sexy and ever dynamic campus administrator Dr. Ma. Evengeline P. Perez, to the different chairs of different departments, to the faculty and staff of this institution, to my co-aspirants and to the best students of the whole world, a pleasant afternoon to each in everyone. We are convened here this afternoon for another remarkable and momentous activity in our lives as students, for this afternoon’s activity is considered as one of our greatest decision-making in our lives as students. A wise decision in choosing a leader who will serve as your voice and will hear and answer your queries towards your rights as one of the important stakeholders of this institution. My fellow Cenphilians, the man standing in front of you right now is an aspirant to become a leader, who had bore in mind that being a leader is not an opportunity to rule over the others nor to enslave other people. For me, becoming a leader is a great challenge and responsibility to continue the good administration done by the previous people in authority on the Supreme Student Government or otherwise known as the SSG. I being an aspirant leader of the said organization, would like to continue hearing your voices as what the previous administration did, in order that you can express and exercise your freedom of speech. And I as an aspirant, will serve as your stairway that your voices will be recognized as a student until everything will be okay. And as been said by a not so intelligent creature in the cartoon Spongebob Square Pants, â€Å"Everything will be okay at the end; if it is not okay, yet it is not the end† that is according to Patrick the Starfish. Yes this is really true my fellow cenphilians, and actually one of the reasons why I ran on this organization is that I want to encourage and influence everyone to pursue your dreams. If you haven’t ask me, I am one of the indigent students of this institution but still I am strong enough to overcome the challenges in life being a student. The courage I have in myself, forces me to ran as a leader, thinking that if God’s well, I can influence others in a positive way. And if ever I may not be lucky enough today, still I can assure you, you can still come on me for some motivations and advices, and I will never hesitate myse lf to help and comfort you in terms of your problems. Cause I ran thinking that I am not just be a leader but also will set myself as your â€Å"Manong† who is willing to guide and help you in terms of any unavoidable  difficulties in school or even outside the school premises (financially not involve). I can also be your friend for I am willing to render an extra ordinary services for the goodness of everybody that will enhance our personality for the betterment of the entire community. Lastly, I ran as a president on the SSG execom with a purpose of having a positive changes in our institution throughout my leadership to maintain our name on top, CPSU CAUAYAN UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, and I want that changes to be solicited from you. For I believe, as what a wise man says that, a good leader is always a good follower and yes Indeed. And if ever I became a leader, I want a fair treatment to every students, and being a president in God’s well is not my only chance but everybody’s chance to express your thoughts and ideas for the betterment of the campus, because hopefully, I Arjay T. Bando a 3rd year BEED student, is an open-minded, trustworthy and approachable person is ready to serve you my fellow Cenphilians with all my heart and up to the best that I can. Of course, all of these things would not be materialized without your support my fellow Cenphilians. Let us work in hand and hand, all together for the success of our plans. So I am asking for your full support to please vote me, don’t forget my name Arjay Bando aspiring to be the next President of the Supreme student Government for the school year 2015-2016,and together with my senators â€Å"maga isa kita padulong sa kauswagan sng aton Institution†. Read more:  Campaign Speech Examples

The Role of African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement Essay

The African American Civil Rights Movement was a series of protests in the United States South from approximately 1955 through 1968. The overall goal of the Civil Rights Movement was to achieve racial equality before the law. Protest tactics were, overall, acts of civil disobedience. Rarely were they ever intended to be violent. From sit-ins to boycotts to marches, the activists involved in the Civil Rights Movement were vigilant and dedicated to the cause without being aggressive. While African-American men seemed to be the leaders in this epic movement, African-American women played a huge role behind the scenes and in the protests. When discussing the American Civil Rights Movement, the names that seem to come up are those of prominent black men. While these men did enormous amounts of good during this movement, there are many women who seem to be poorly represented or credited. Black women had a huge amount of influence during the Civil Rights Movement. While many of the protests and movements were led by men, the women were behind the scenes organizing and promoting and popularizing the ideas themselves. Many women were heavily involved in political organizations such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and many others. Even if they were not directly involved in organizations, however, many black women became informal leaders of movements and/or enthusiastic participants. A few famous example of black women’s involvement are: Citizenship Schools in South Carolina, the Montgomery B us Boycott, And various women’s involvement in political groups and organizations. One of the most influential women i... ...rica? Fannie Lou Hamer and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party." Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941-1965. By Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne. Rouse, and Barbara Woods. Vol. 16. Brooklyn, NY: Carlson Pub., 1990. 27-37. Print. Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson, and David J. Garrow. The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It: the Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson. Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1987. Print. Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: a Radical Democratic Vision. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2003. Print. Standley, Anne. "The Role of Black Women in the Civil Rights Movement." Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941-1965. By Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne. Rouse, and Barbara Woods. Brooklyn, NY: Carlson Pub., 1990. 183-202. Print.

Impact of Advertising on Customer Loyality

*BEST PRACTICE: Customer *loyalty _The limited number of business contacts, the difficulty of recruiting new business customers and the cost of some business products or services all mean that maintaining customer loyalty is key to B2B marketing success. Sara Goodwins looks at some popular approaches to this problem_ Is it easier and less expensive to sell to existing customers than to find new ones? Of course it is. In the B2B arena, however, sales cycles are longer. If customers are not to be tempted away by competitors, marketing needs to encourage them to develop a relationship with the brand. Anthony Green, sales & marketing director of Concep, comments: â€Å"If businesses keep in touch, customers become familiar with products and services on offer and the company will be taken into consideration when a purchase is made. † When keeping in touch with customers, communication should achieve a number of objectives. Firstly, it should reassure the customer that they made a good choice of partner/supplier. It should also add value to the relationship, above what has been contracted, seek additional opportunities for further business, and inform business and client about new developments. Existing customers, lapsed customers and prospects should be approached differently. Marketers can assume that customers are familiar with the business and currently prefer your products/services or have done so in the recent past. Ideally no customer should ever go elsewhere, but there will be events such as changes in personnel, expiry of contracts, upheavals in the market, that change the relationship. Julie Cooper, co-director of events management company Fab, points out, â€Å"If a key contact within the client company is replaced, you have to establish confidence and trust with a new person – and the new contact may well bring with them pre-existing relationships with competing suppliers. † Keep in touch Lapsed customers, because of the past business relationship, should not be contacted in the same way as prospects. Alan Curnow, communications manager of Grass Roots, explains: â€Å"The distinction between clients and prospects is (more one of) tone than substance; we may need to refresh prospects' memories of who we are, whereas clients – even if they haven't bought from us for some time – know us. † Jan-Pieter Lips, head of business-to-business at Loyalty Management UK, which operates Nectar for Business, adds: â€Å"Experience shows that there is a direct correlation between winning back a lapsed customer and the time that has passed since the last transaction. Simon Ward, director of rewards scheme Seed, considers that the frequency of customer orders is like a pulse. â€Å"Businesses should monitor customertransactions and identify when they change. They can then contact thecustomer and find out why. † David Lebond, executive director of P&MM, agrees: â€Å"Doing something wrong is the best opportunity for getting a customer for life; if you handle a complaint well, put things right and demonstrate that you have the customers' interests at heart then not only will customers be retained, they'll also talk about you in glowing terms. Newsletters Newsletters and customers magazines are one of the most obvious communications methods, which can be used to maintain customerrelationships and loyalty. Richard Bush, managing director of Base One, says, â€Å"The trend for customermagazines – which we saw in the mid 90s – has diminished as many businesses found they were expensive and their success difficult to measure, although the need for what they provided still remains. † Electronic newsletters have taken over as less expensive, more measurable and interactive replacements. To include relevant material, you need to consider things like: life cycle of products/services and how they relate to customers and information held about customers which helps target mailings. Allow readers to choose – for example: offer the flexibility to pick areas of interest, frequency of mailing, etc. but make sure that they can change their selections with each mailing. Denise Cox, newsletter specialist at Newsweaver, says, â€Å"Stay away from complicated password-protected access to subscription profiles; this is a real turn-off and readers may just start deleting your emails instead of trying to change their preferences. Newsletters need a simple lay-out, clear navigation and no fancy graphics such as Flash that could cause them to be filtered. They require a table of contents on each page to provide clear choice and encourage further reading; around five main articles per newsletter of 300-700 words and a 100-word synopsis of each article on the front page with a link. â€Å"It is also extremely important that you have a strong call-to-action in your articles,† says Cox of Newsweaver. â€Å"It's astonishing how many companies don't. Yet it's your key opportunity to incite sales, feedback and make requests for more information. Readers typically decide within eight seconds whether to read on, set the information aside – which probably means they'll never read it – or delete it. The ‘from' and ‘subject' of the email need to tempt recipients to open it. ‘From' should be your brand, helping to build recognition; ‘subject' should be interesting and relevant. Content could include: articles stimulating thought and discussion, pertinent information relating to technological innovations, legislation affecting the industry, links to relevant news, client wins and case studies, industry reports and website links. Email newsletters are extremely cost-effective, popular, and immediate, and offer measurable conversion rates. Their main disadvantage is one of commitment. Companies must be prepared to publish a regular, well thought-out newsletter for it to be of marketing use and to respond to the interest it arouses. Reward/loyalty programmes â€Å"Reward programmes and loyalty programmes are not the same. The former is tactical, the latter strategic,† says Lebond of P&MM, he adds, â€Å"Reward programmes are a form of payment for repeat business; loyalty programmes represent a state of mind created in the customer. Reward programmes are most effective when there is rivalry in a sector (the programme then makes the point of difference); or there are frequent purchases to lock collectors into the scheme; or it's easy to change suppliers so customers need to be induced to stay. Reward programmes are effective anywhere where customer retention is key. Geraldine Tosh, managing director of IP oints, says, â€Å"A client running a website which relies heavily on advertisers, for example, can tempt people to the site using a reward programme. Extra points could be offered to clients making it their homepage for example, or using it frequently, etc. Branded reward programmes are often more cost-effective and less labour-intensive as well as enabling value to accumulate quickly. The main disadvantage is that companies usually have to commit for a period of time. Steve Cooper, marketing manager at Argos Business Solutions says, â€Å"In some cases a tailored scheme is more appropriate for a company where aligning with a different brand may conflict with or dilute the impact of their own brand and communications. † White label reward programmes aim to build value into a company's brand and offer companies more control of how uch value they're giving away. Tosh of IPoints says, â€Å"Reward catalogues can be tailored to include a business's own product or service at a reduced price. Companies could even tailor the earning and redemption around their customers' business needs. † Customers who know that your company is helping to build their business have a powerful incentive to buy from you. Rewards are short-term encouragements; loyalty is long-term commitment. As Lebond of P says, â€Å"If you get the right people with the constant attitude of ‘how can I make my customers even happier' then you don't need a reward programme. Corporate hospitality Customer events are undervalued largely because the value of them is difficult to assess. Face-to-face communications and shared experiences are very personal and the positive associations remain for a long time. Sarah Webster, director of communications at Eventia, explains, â€Å"Corporate hospitality enables suppliers to deepen their relationship with clients and to understand the motivations and constraints that influence buying decisions. † Corporate hospitality also adds value, as Rob Allen, chief executive at TRO, explains. Take the example of an accountancy firm which organises a breakfast briefing for its clients on the morning following the budget. By explaining the full implications of the Chancellor's new financial provisions, the firm is enabling its client companies to make significant savings or profits. The client relationship is enhanced. † Bush of Base One has no doubt, â€Å"Thirty minutes in a room with your top 10 customers is worth thousands of DM pieces. † Dedicated client website Webpages are particularly powerful marketing tools when used in conjunction with other marketing communication. Businesses can track the customer's journey through the site. Marketers can then use the information to tailor communications which recognise each client's interests. The main problem with websites is that the information they contain needs to be frequently refreshed to ensure that customers revisit. Many of the suggestions for newsletters apply equally to websites. Anthony Green, sales & marketing director of Concep, comments: â€Å"Additional information tied into a newsletter article can be put on the webpage. Those who click on the webpage have decided consciously that they want to access further information. Companies can then analyse the click-throughs and understand the specific areas of interest on both a macro and per-recipient level. † Tosh of IPoints is succinct, â€Å"Use microsites and reward schemes to collect information and then use the information in communications. † Communication is the key Relevant, valuable and timely communications are seminal to maintainingcustomer loyalty. Lebond of P says, â€Å"Every piece of communication could potentially be the lowest common denominator in a business's contact with its clients, so each one must be as good as possible. More business is lost by poor communications then by anything else. † Newsletters draw customers to websites where their interests can be analysed and responded to, reward programmes encourage frequent transactions, and hospitality enables personal contact. Curnow of Grass Roots explains, â€Å"Loyalty is not so much a pattern of behaviour as a state-of-mind. The single most conclusive evidence of loyalty is advocacy, not usage. The acid test is not how much the customer spends but how hard it would be to prise him away. And of course you cannot put a value on that

Understand the Relationship Between Organizational Structure and Culture.

Task 1: Understand the relationship between organizational structure and culture. P1. 1: Compare and contrast different organisational structure and culture. According to Buchanan and Huczynski, an organisation is a ‘social arrangement for the controlled performance of collective goals’. Chester Barnard described an organisation as ‘a system of co-operative human activities’. Organisation are can be define as; ‘A deliberately formed group of human being with known boundaries and common goal’. Or, a group of people working together to achieved a common goal. There are 2 types of organisation: i. formal organization and ii. Informal organisation. A formal organization is one which is deliberately constructed to fulfil specific goals’. It is characterized by planned division of responsibility and a well-defined structure of authority and communication. ‘An informal organization is one which loosely structured, flexible and spontaneous, fluctuating with its individual membership’. Examples of an informal organization are colleagues who tend to lunch together. Organizational structure: There are many types of organisational structures exist. Following are the common types that include their advantages and disadvantages: A. Geographical organisation: In a structure of geographical, regional or territorial departmentation, some authority is retaining at head office, but day to day operations are handled on a territorial basis. Example: northern region, western region. Advantage: i. There is local decision-making. ii. It may be cheaper to establish local factories or office. Disadvantage: i. Duplication and possible loss of economies of scale might arise. ii. Inconsistency in stander may develop from one area to another. B. Functional organization: functional organization involves grouping together people who perform similar tasks or use similar technology or materials. Primary functions in a manufacturing company might be production, sales, finance marketing and general administration. Advantage: i. Expertise is pooled and related technology/equipment or materials accessed more efficiently. ii. It avoids duplication and offers economies of scale. iii. It makes easier the recruitment, training and motivation of professional specialists. Disadvantage: i. It is organization by inputs and internal processes, rather than by output and customers demand. i. Communication problems may arise between different specialism, with their own culture and language. iii. Poor co-ordination may result, especially in a tall organization structure. C. Product-based organization: Some organizations group activities on the basis of product or product line. Some functional departmentation remains but a divisional manager is g iven responsibility for the product or product line. Example: manufacturing, distribution, marketing and sales. Advantage: i. Accountability. ii. Specialization. iii. Co-ordination. Disadvantage: i. It increased the overhead costs and managerial complexity of the organization. ii. Different product divisions may fail to share resources and customers. D. Matrix organization: Matrix organization crosses functional and product, customer and project organization. Advantages of the matrix organization: i. It attempts to retain the benefits of both structures ( functional organization and project team structure ). ii. Coordinates resources in a way that applies them effectively to different projects. iii. Staff can retain membership on teams and their functional department colleagues. Disadvantages of the matrix organization: i. Potential for conflict between functional vs. project groups. ii. Greater administrative overhead. iii. Increase in managerial overhead E. Centralization and decentralization organization: In a centralised organisation head office (or a few senior managers) will retain the major responsibilities and powers. Conversely decentralised organisations will spread responsibility for specific decisions across various outlets and lower level managers, including branches or units located away from head office/head quarters. An example of a decentralised structure is Tesco the supermarket chain. Each store of Tesco has a store manager who can make certain decisions concerning their store. The store manager is responsible to a regional manager. F. Multi-functional and Multi divisional organization: In a functional structure jobs become differentiated around areas of specialty. For example, accounting and human resource specialists are hired to handle these specialized tasks. These specialists (functional line managers) report to the CEO, but usually have autonomy for day-to-day decision-making, e. . , hiring and firing personnel. The multidivisional structure centres on the use of separate businesses or profit centres. The M-Form is used by many organizations that compete in the global economy. General Electric is an example of a company that uses this structure. Each unit is operated as a separate business with its own corporate staff including President. Some parent companies do little more than provide capital and guide units to an organizational-wide strategy. The overall goal is to maximize the overall organization’s performance. In order to accomplish this, managers at the â€Å"parent† use a combination of strategic and financial controls. G. Internal and external network structure: ‘A behavioral view is that a network is a pattern of social relations over a set of persons, positions, groups, or organizations’. ’ Network organizations are defined by elements of structure, process, and purpose’. A network organization maintains permeable boundaries either internally among business units or externally with other firms. H. Organizational charts: Organization charts, such as those used to traditional way of setting out in diagrammatic form: i. The units (department etc. ) into the organization are divided and how they relate to each other. ii. The formal communication and reporting Chanels of the organization. iii. The structure of authority, responsibility and delegation in the organization including. iv. Any problems in the above: insufficient delegation, long lines communication or unclear authority relationships. I. Span of control: The span of control refers to the number of subordinate immediately reporting to a superior official. The right Span of control is depended are those things: i. A manager’s capabilities limit the span of control. i. The nature of the manager’s work load. iii. Subordinates work. iv. The interaction between subordinates. J. Flexible working: A useful definition of flexible working relates to when, where, how and what work is done: Flexible time:Work is performed at times that better suit the employer and/or employee Flexible place:Work is carried out wherever is most appropriate and effective for the employer and/or employee. Flexible contract:Workers are employed and/or rewarded in non-standard ways. Flexible tasks:Multi-skilled workers are able to undertake a variety of tasks according to need. Organizational culture: Organizational culture (in the sense organizational climate) is the collective’s self-image and style of the organization; its shared values and beliefs, norms and symbols. In the bellow we discuss about various organizational culture: Power culture: This is also known as web structure. This is usually associated with the small organizations. This is where the central character, usually the founder has all authority and is typically surrounded by people they get on with and usually seen with empowerment since there is lot of trust between the webs. There is a central power source and the rays of influence spread out from that central figure. In this type of organization individuals rather than a group make all the decisions. The danger of this sort of culture is that, because it is autocratic, there can be a feeling of suppression and lack of challenge in the workforce. Since this is associated with small organizations there are not many theories associated with it and are only seen in smaller companies, which shows it, will only work on small scale. Role culture: The role culture is typical of bureaucracies. In the role culture, the jobs that people do- their roles – are more important than the people themselves. Managers have power and influence due to their status within the organization and not because of personal influence or expertise. Business would be divided into various functions (e. g. finance, marketing, production etc. ). These would then have a hierarchical ordering of offices (e. g. Finance director, Production manager, Supervisors, operators etc. ). Role cultures can only be successful where the environment in which the business is operating remains stable. Where a business faces rapid change, the role culture is likely to collapse. The large organizations, which can be difficult to control often, have a role culture. Task culture: Task cultures have become very important in business in the first decade of twenty first century. The task culture focuses on getting the job done. Groups or teams within this culture are not fixed but are made up of individuals brought together to achieve a specific task. In the task culture there is a strong emphasis on building the team. Team members will need to share values and aspirations. They will also need to feel valued by the organization they work for. In task culture, teams will often have considerable input in determining how a particular job will be done. Their views and opinions will be listed. Person culture: In a person culture, individuals are central. Person culture is also known as cluster structure. This is very rare and is only associated to small organizations with very short structures and an extremely wide base. This is because they are usually conjoined with the organizations that are specialist in many different areas (universities, many lawyers and scientific researching) there is no real rules, only law associated with the types of experimenting and research. Organizational cultures values and beliefs: i. It affects the motivation and satisfaction of employees. ii. It can aid the adaptability of the organization, by encouraging innovation, risk taking, sensitivity to the environment, customer care, willingness to embrace new methods and technologies. iii. It affects the image of the organization. Development of organizational culture: There are many factors which influence the organizational culture, including the following: i. Economic condition. ii. The nature of the business and its tasks. iii. Leadership style. iv. Policies and practices. v. Structure. vi. Characteristics of the work force. P1. 2: Explain how the relationship between an organizations structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business. Broadly, we can say that a behavioural problem is anything in the behaviour of people-individual, interpersonal and group. At first we discuss about various type of diagnosing and interpersonal behavioural problems; Diagnosing behaviour problem: Diagnosis is the thorough analysis of facts or problem in order to gain understanding. Principles of diagnosis: i. Distinguish the symptom from the problem. ii. Look at the facts. iii. Don’t be simplistic about causes. iv. Focus on the problem, not the person. v. Don’t impose your own judgments. vi. Respect privacy and confidentiality. Methodology of diagnosis: i. Observation. ii. Interview. iii. Questionnaires. iv. Reports. Perception: Perception is the psychological process by which stimuli or in-coming sensory data are selected and organized into patterns which are meaningful to the individual. Perceptual selection: Perceptual selection as determined by any or all of the following: i. The context. ii. The nature of the stimuli. iii. Internal factors. iv. Fear or trauma. Perception and work behavior: Perception and work behavior do are following way: i. Consider whether you might be misinterpreting the situation. ii. Consider whether others might be misinterpreting the situation or interpreting it differently from you. iii. When tacking a task or a problem, get the people involved to define the situation. iv. Be aware of the most common clashes of perception at work. Such as, manager and staff, work culture, race and gender. Attitudes: An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related. Ability and aptitude: there have been many attempts to make a useful distinction between: i. Abilities-thins that people can do or are at- largely believed to be inherited. ii. Aptitudes-the capacity to learn and develop abilities or skill. Intelligence: Intelligence is a wide and complex concept. There are many forms of intelligence: i. Analytic intelligence. ii. Spatial intelligence. ii. Musical intelligence. iv. Physical intelligence. v. Practical intelligence. vi. Intra-personal intelligence. vii. Inter-personal intelligence. P1. 3: Discuss the factors which influence individual behaviour at work: In the bellow we discuss about various type of individual’s behavior: Personality: personality is the total pattern of characteristic ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that constitute the individuals distinctive method of relating to the environment. Traits and types: Traits are consistently observable properties or the tendency for a person in a particular way. Self and self-image: Self: self has a two component: A. T- the unique, active, impulsive part of the individual, which rises above conformity. And B. Me- the mental process which reflects objectively on the self and measures it against the social norms, values and expectation. Self-image: People have a subjective picture of what their own self is like, this called a self-image. Personality and work behavior: Obviously personalities are complex and individual. Personality and work behavior conflicted in organization; manager will have to consider the following aspect: i. The compatibility of an individual’s personality with the task. ii. The compatibility of an individual’s personality with the systems and management culture of the organization. iii. The compatibility of the individual’s personality with that of others in the team. Where incompatibilities occur, the manager will have to: . Restore compatibility. ii. Achieve compromise. iii. Remove the incompatible personality. Organizational structure and Culture of Sainsbury and Tesco: Sainsbury’s organization structure: The organizational structure of Sainsbury’s is hierarchical because there is series of levels of people and the level above controls each level. Each lev el is the responsibility of the level above. For example senior managers are responsible for the line managers and line managers are responsible for sales assistants. The diagram below shows the downward flow of communication in Sainsbury’s. I think Sainsbury’s structure is between hierarchical and tall structure. Tall structure has many layers but not as many layers as matrix structure and as less as flat structure and this means the information is not a s fast in flat structure and not as slow as in matrix structure. Due to fast flow of communication it is easier and clear between each layer. This when decisions are made they will be specific to order instructions. Strengths of Sainsbury’s structure: i. It gives them a greater sense of unity and purpose as they can see themselves as members of a team. i. It is easier to get help, as they can ask experienced colleagues or take more difficult problems to boss. iii. It makes easier to carry out joint projects as everyone involved is working together. iv. There are economies of scale as specialist staff can do more work efficiently. v. Communications from top to bottom are better, as there are definite channels through which orders can flow. Weakness of this structure: i. Hierarchies usually have tall organizational structures with seven or eight levels of authority. This means that there is long chain of command. i. Each employee is concerned mainly with his or her own function, or specialized work, and often has only employees in other departments. iii. There is natural tendency for managers to protect the interest of their own department. This may make them more concerned with office politics than with the interests of the whole firm. iv. The hierarchical system emphasizes status. This creates divisions in the firm, which are reflected in separate car-parking spaces for managers, longer holidays for white-collar workers and separate canteen for blue-collar workers. Tesco organization structure: Tesco has a hierarchical/pyramid structure. In Tesco organisational chart they have more levels and they have more employees at down level. In hierarchical structure each functional area has many staff to do a particular task they are specialised in the job. Each person has a job role and there will be a specific salary for the job. In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted because their chains of command are long. When messages pass from top level to the bottom level they receive a message slightly different message than the one they intended to receive. In hierarchical structure the staffs at the bottom level feels that the manager at the top has no idea what they think or do. In a hierarchical structure many people have to be consulted before a decision is made. This means that the company is slow in responding to changes. The span of control is less in Tesco because they have many levels and the span of control explains the person who is responsible for you. For example if a store manager has 4 sections manager then his span of control are four. In hierarchical there is a good promotion prospectus because of many levels. Sainsbury’s organizational culture: Sainsbury is a varied company and I don’t feel it can safely be placed into any of these categories, but I will say it’s a mixture between Role culture and Task culture. Since Sainsbury is a big organization there can be many things at once, I feel Sainsbury has taken the best attributes of the two and made their own Sainsbury’s culture. This includes: – i. Very tall and board structure but with many web links. ii. Strict communication channels low down. iii. Jobs, not people lowdown (but they do get their say when needed). iv. Jobs suited to the task in the central range. . Communication between departments by knowledgeable workers (not manual laborers). vi. Formal communication going up the hierarchy. All these are associated with the two cultures and so Sainsbury can’t be defined to one group. Since Human culture is a mixture of hundreds of separate culture trying to produce the best of all words. In my opinion Sainsbury’s would more suite the Role culture since the formal structure also emphasizes this by adding a rigid structure you add a formality quality or a freedom associated with the person, thus the job is more than the employee, which is the role culture. These two also dictate the management style because Role culture has important job. There is communication with the job not the person, this is autocratic because the person has no say. The structure means there is a formality also so Sainsbury is a formal business and this means all jobs are done in formal and this should increase production by having quick workers who don’t have to think. All the difference influences each other because they all have an effect on certain aspects of the company. They all knock on to each other and manipulate the finer points of each. Tesco organizational culture: Tesco’s corporate culture can be determined from its corporate responsibility statements, which describe its core values and core ideologies as well as some aspects of cultural artifacts. Tesco’s stated core priorities include: i. Ensuring community, corporate responsibility and sustainability are at the heart of our business. ii. Being a good neighbor and being responsible, fair and honest. iii. Considering our social, economic and environmental impact as we make our decisions. (Tesco, 2008) These values have had a significant impact on the way in which Tesco does business, as well as its inancial performance. For example, its expansion into California was designed to be not only profitable, but also socially responsible. As in the United Kingdom, American inner cities have a food supply problem wherein there are few large supermarkets and the smaller supermarkets do not have an adequate supply of fresh foods, including fruits, vegetables and proteins. How the relationships structure and culture can impact Sainsbury and Tesco’s performance: Tesco’s organisational structure is a hierarchical structure. In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted as messages pass from one level to another means that the staff at the bottom level receive a slightly a different message than the message they intent to receive it. Many people’s have to be consulted before a decision is made so the company is slow in responding to changes and challenges. This means they cannot provides quick services to their customers and it is going to affect in terms of sales and profit but there is an advantage that if everybody is consulted they will come out with the best results. In hierarchical structure there are specific functional areas and job roles. The employees can be easily identified and given training so they can provide good services to their customers. Hierarchical structure has good delegations because they are many people’s with specialised skills are working here so they can easily assign their subordinates for a particular task. The span of control is less than the flat structures. In hierarchical structures they have good promotion prospectus so the staff are motivated and they provides good services to their customers. I think that the impact of the organizational structure has an excellent impact on Sainsbury due to the staff of Sainsbury working hard and being highly motivated in the work that they do, and the customer service that they provide for the customers that shop at Sainsbury. This is due to the human resources function of Sainsbury recruiting staff that they feel is suitable to work at Sainsbury, this could be due to the experience, qualifications, and availability of the member of staff working at Sainsbury. The finance function helps Sainsbury by the accountants keeping accounts up to date, this is an advantage because this has an impact on Sainsbury by enabling it to see if the financial factors of Sainsbury are improving or declining, and if new targets should be set, and if new objectives should be made. The marketing function has an impact on Sainsbury by the way that it helps the supermarket grow bigger by the advertisement campaigns it launches to make potential customers of Sainsbury notice what Sainsbury has to offer them. Task2: Understand different approaches to management and leadership. P2. : Compare the effectiveness of different leadership style in different organizations. In the below we discuss about various type of management style: Scientific management: According to Fredrick Winslow Taylor, â€Å"Scientific management means knowing exactly what you want men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and the cheapest way. † Classical administration: Henri Fayo l was a French industrialist, according to him, the idea that all organizations could be structured managed according to certain rational principle. Bureaucracy: An organization structured on classical lines is often identified as a bureaucracy. Human relations approach: The human relations approach emphasised the importance of human attitudes, values and relationships for the efficient and effective functioning of work organizations. Systems approach: Systems approach described as which consists of interdependent parts. Every system has a boundary which defines what it is ‘inside’ what is ‘outside’ the system. Contingency approach: The contingency approach to organization developed as a reaction to the idea that there are universal principles for designing organization, motivating staff and others. In the below we discuss about some function of management: Planning: This essentially means looking to the future. It involves selecting the ends which the organization wishes to achieve. Organizing: The work to be done must be divided and structured into task and jobs. Commanding: Fayol called this maintaining activity among the personal. Co-ordination: this is the task of harmonizing the activities of individuals and groups within the organization. Controlling: This is the task of monitoring the activities of individual and groups. P2. : Explain how organizational theory underpins the practice of management In the below we discuss about various managerial role: Interpersonal Roles: Interpersonal roles process and outlined three basic roles. Those are: i. Figurehead. ii. Leader. iii. Liaison. Informational role: A manager is likely to have a wider network of contacts within and outside the organization than his subordinates. So he is the best parson to gather and spread information. Decisional roles: The manager’s formal authority and access to information put him in a strong position to take decisions. In the below we discuss about nature of managerial authority: Power: Power is the ability to do something or get others to do it. Authority: Authority is the right to do something or to get others to do it. Responsibility: Responsibility is the liability of a person to be called to account for the way he was exercised the authority given to him. Delegation: Delegation is the process whereby superior A gives subordinate B authority over a defined area which falls within the scope of A’s own authority. P2. 3: Evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations. Opportunist: The opportunist action-logic is aimed at controlling their environment in order to survive. Typically development has been blocked by a legacy of mistrust, egocentrism and manipulativeness. The title for this action-logic denotes a tendency to focus on personal wins and to see relationships as opportunities to be exploited. From the opportunist action-logic, the world is highly competitive. Only the fittest individuals survive and, since the opportunist assumes everybody else is also operating from this frame of reference, competition rather than collaboration is the only viable course of action. Diplomat: Moving away from the â€Å"anything-goes-that-serves-me† framework of the Opportunist, Diplomats are aware of group strength over individual power. Thus, they seek to belong to established groups which may be based on kinship, club, church or profession. Since power comes from affiliation with others, rules and social norms are followed to seek approval and safeguard status as a group member. Achiever: Leaders who have developed this action-logic can be both challenging and supportive, creating a positive atmosphere both inside the team and external to the team. They represent approximately 30% of the general managerial population and are tightly focused on deliverables. People whose developmental focus is on the Achiever action-logic have a more complex and integrated understanding of the world than do managers who display the previous three action logics. Strategist: At 4% of leaders, people who have developed to this action-logic are likely to be found in less conventional settings. If they have survived life in the Public service, they are likely to have developed a reputation as transformational leaders. They distinguish themselves from Individualists through their focus on organizational constraints and perceptions, which they treat as discussible and transformable. Transformational: Transformational leadership occurs when the leader and the follower elevates one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Carlson (1996) points out that Burns felt that leadership theories developed up to the mid-seventies were lacking ethical/moral dimensions so he elaborated on his exchange theory which maintains that followers play a crucial role in the definition of leadership. This theory is made up of power relations and entails bargaining, trading and compromise among leaders and followers. Management styles and leadership used in Tesco’s: Tesco’s tend to use autocratic because the company needs too or the e tasks won’t be carried out within the business, also decisions need to be made quickly or they won’t be done for example a task that is set for a shelf filler to put the milk out but hasn’t been told to put the milk out because the management are still deciding who’s going to put what out, so the milk would be still sat in the storage room and the customers cant buy it. So if the management didn’t use autocratic then Tesco’s wouldn’t be run sufficiently. Tesco also uses management by objectives. They use this because they state to each employee in their appraisals what their objectives are for a certain period. Also each manager is set objectives by their line manager for their team for example the sales team’s objective that has been set is to increase the amount of customers using Tesco by 25%. The way in which Tesco is structured and managed. (Management at Tesco. † 123HelpMe. com. 05 Jan 2012 . ) Management styles and leadership used in Sainsbury’s: If a company adopts the consultative style, then the person may well set the objectives and this would mean a lesser extent of pushing to achieve objectives. In my opinion Sainsbury uses a mixture of two types of management style. First being autocratic means the objectives would be set up and to a good standard; they will want the most work out of their subordinates, to gain maximum value. For the key areas of operations: Sainsbury is using autocratic management style, for setting its objectives, policies at top management level. They also use democratic management style. These would be set to gain maximum revenue they would want this and strive to get this because this style is associated with the managerial levels and will mean they get bonuses. For overall working of the organization at middle management levels and lower management levels, the style of Sainsbury is democratic, because the area of operations is widely decentralized and for the implementation of policies in three different segments, policies should be consulted with the local personal, which are specially appointed for this purpose. As they know the inner constraints, strengths of that particular segment. Task3: Understand ways of using motivational theories in organization. P3. 1: Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in periods of change. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs: The basis of Maslow's theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be addressed. Per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly. These needs were dubbed â€Å"deficiency needs. † While a person is motivated to fulfill these basal desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually self-actualization. The satisfaction of these needs is quite healthy. While preventing their gratification makes us ill or act evilly. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Chart As a result, for adequate workplace motivation, it is important that leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslow's model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be atisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called ‘Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or ‘Maslow's Needs Triangle', when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Herzberg’s theory: Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include: – Company policy and administration Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration – Quality of supervision – Quality of inter-personal relations – Working conditions – Feelings of job security Motivator Factors Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include: – Status – Opportunity for advancement – Gaining recognition – Responsibility – Challenging / stimulating work Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job McGregor’s theory X and Y: Theory X Theory X assumes that the average person: †¢Disl ikes work and attempts to avoid it. †¢Has no ambition, wants no responsibility, and would rather follow than lead. †¢Is self-centered and therefore does not care about organizational goals. †¢Resists change. †¢Is gullible and not particularly intelligent. Essentially, Theory X assumes that people work only for money and security. Theory Y The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best be motivated. Theory Y makes the following general assumptions: †¢Work can be as natural as play and rest. †¢People will be self-directed to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them. †¢People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that address higher needs such as self-fulfillment. †¢Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility. †¢Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population. Vroom and Expectancy theories: Essentially, expectancy theory states that the strength of an individual’s motivation to do something will depend on the extent to which he expects the result of his efforts, if successfully achieved, to contribute towards his personal needs or goals. Maccoby, Mccrac and costa: There is relative consensus on a five-factor structure of personality, based on a bipolar taxonomy of underlying traits, which is supported by factor analyses of extensive lists of trait adjectives. The five broad personality dimensions are commonly labeled extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness. It should be noted that these dimensions are not types, meaning that personality is made up of scores on the five dimensions. Motivation and performance: Motivation, as it most nearly concerns the manager, is the controlling of the work environment and the offering of rewards in such a way as to encourage extra performance from employees. Rewards and incentives: A reward is a token (monetary or otherwise) given to an individual or team in recognition of some contribution or success. An incentive is the offer or promise of a reward for contribution or success, designed to motivate the individual or team to behave in such a way as to earn it. Motivation and manager: Managers are constantly searching for ways to create a motivational environment where associates (employees) to work at their optimal levels to accomplish company objectives. Workplace motivators include both monetary and non-monetary incentives. Monetary and Non-monetary rewards: The purpose of monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through money. Monetary incentives include profit sharing, project bonuses, stock options and warrants, scheduled bonuses (e. g. , Christmas and performance-linked), and additional paid vacation time. Traditionally, these have helped maintain a positive motivational environment for associate. The purpose of non-monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through opportunities. Non-monetary incentives include flexible work hours, training, pleasant work environment, and sabbaticals. P3. 2: Compare the application of different motivational theories within the work place. Leadership in organization: This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007, p3) definition — Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Managers and leaders: Influence is the process by which an individual or group exercises power to determine or modify the behavior of others. Leadership traits: People who believe that leaders are born are likely to buy into the Traits Theory. This theory basically centers itself on the leader. What are the qualities of a leader? Now if you look at the different leaders of the world, companies or armies they all carry certain traits. It is believed that if one carries these characteristics then one is likely to become a leader. So, this theory defines what are the qualities that a leader should posses rather than leadership. If one is a leader then these leadership traits should be present. Management style: Managers have to perform many roles in an organization and how they handle various situations will depend on their style of management. There are two sharply contrasting styles that will be broken down into smaller subsets later: oAutocratic oPermissive Each style has its own characteristics: Autocratic: Leader makes all decisions unilaterally. Permissive: Leader permits subordinates to take part in decision making and also gives them a considerable degree of autonomy in completing routine work activities. Contingency approach: The Contingency Theory takes in consideration the weaknesses of the previous theories. Since leadership functions in a dynamic situation, it is only logical that different styles and traits will work in different situations. The Contingency Theory takes into consideration the context where leadership is exercised. P3. 3: Evaluate the usefulness of a Motivation theory for managers. Leadership and successful change in organizations: Pluralistic: inclusive enough consistent with the needs of pluralistic leadership. Such organizations emphasize hierarchy, authority and structure over participation and inclusiveness. Pluralistic leadership results in diversity and diversity results in pluralistic leadership (Bass, 1990; Millman and Kanter, 1986). Pluralistic leadership is very consistent with notions of participation of all in the leadership decisions and the understanding of multiple perspectives within the organization and outside it (Kezar, 2000). Transformational: It depends on two main points of view: – The theoretical, and – The applied Theoretical definitions come from those that study leadership, who have the formal qualifications to write long dissertations on the subject. This body of knowledge is fantastic for grounding in the subject and to get into the depth of the potential implications, especially when it comes to the morals and ethics department. The applied is the interpretation, and then applied action in a specific field of endeavor. We’ll use the personal, organizational, and global contexts for this purpose. You will have your own applied experience, or not, depending on where you are on your own personal Transformational Leadership journey. Communications: The closest definition of a communication leader is Gramsci’s definition of the organic intellectual – which Gramsci essentially sees as a leader. Gramsci sees in the intellectual not only as a leader but also as a poet, thinker, reader and activist. Sainsbury’s motivational theories: Sainsbury agree that employees are their most important assets and need to be treated fairly. The good performance of employee’s management s has an effect on the organization's success, in terms of profitability. Sainsbury give out financial rewords to most people who complete the training programme. Training is designed to keep employees motivated and is convinced to complete their training by rewarding them with financial gain. Motivation comprises of the need for employees and controls their action. Using motivation techniques can improve productivity and customer service. Also employee satisfaction leads to good service that leads to customer satisfaction. Maslows- Hierarchy of needs This theory is based on meeting staff needs with in the workplace and suggests that meeting their needs can lead to be fill are: – Self- fulfillment- researching your full potential Self-esteem needs- status and recognition, achievement and independence Social needs- love, friendship, a sense of belonging part of a team Safety needs- protection against danger, fair treatment, job security Physiological needs- food, rest and shelter Mc Gregor- Theory x and theory y They are two types of main types of managers. Theory x managers tend to have the point of view that the average dislikes and will try to avoid it. Therefore the managers must control direct and punish them to get them to work towards business objectives. Theory y suggests that the ordinary person does not dislike work; it all depends on the conditions in which the work takes place. If people are committed to objectives, they will be motivated towards achieving them the biggest motivation factor is the personal satisfaction of completing the job. (â€Å"A Report on Sainsbury's Resource Management. † 123HelpMe. com. 5 Jan 2012 . Tesco motivational theories: Tesco is Britain’s largest retailer. It now has over 2,200 stores. As well as food, it also sells other products such as insurance and banking. To support growth, Tesco needs staffs who are motivated. It achieves this by increasing their knowledge, skills and job satisfaction through training and reward systems. Needs: Self-fulfill: Tesco offers Personal Developme nt Plans, recognition of skills and talents, opportunity for promotion and career progression programmed. Career discussions feed into Tesco’s Talent Planning meetings. The Options fast-track management programmed provides a route for capable staff to reach higher levels. Self-esteem: Tesco values emphasize self-respect and respect for others and praise for hard work, its self assessment, 360 degree feedback and appraisal system help to recognize individuals’ contributions and importance and celebrate achievement. Social needs: Tesco promotes team and group working at various levels; The Company ‘Steering Wheel’ assesses individual and group work and enables store staff to work as a team. Working conditions and a home-from-home ethos encourages long service. Basic/physical needs Security needs: Tesco provides the security of formal contracts of employment as well as pension and sickness schemes and the option to join a union to give people a sense of belonging. It ensures health and safety in the workplace. Basic/physical needs: This would include a place of work, regular monthly pay and essential facilities such as a restaurant or lockers for personal belongings. Tesco provides motivation for its staff through many different routes. Reviews and personal development plans ensure that employees are able to develop and grow. This benefits both staff and the business. (The Times 100 Edition 15 | www. hetimes100. co. uk) EDITION Task 4: Understand mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations. P4. 1: Explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations. Groups: Groups in business organizations are, in effect, sub-organizations and they require management for controlled performance of collective goals, not only their own collective goals, but those of the business organization as a whole. Definition of group is ‘A group is any collection of people who perceive them to be a group’. Informal group and formal group: Informal groups will invariably be present in any organization. Informal groups include workplace cliques and networks of people who regularly get together to exchange information, groups of mates who socialize outside work and so on. Formal groups, put together by the organization, will have formal structure and a function for which they are held responsible, they are task oriented and become teams. Team: A team is a formal group established to achieve particular objectives. Purpose of teams: i. Team allows the performance of tasks. ii. Team encourages exchange of knowledge and ideas or creation of new ideas. iii. The power of the team over individual behavior can be both: control and motivator. Selecting team members: A manager is able to select team members, he or she shuld aim to match some requirement: i. Specialist skills and knowledge. ii. Experience. iii. Political power in the organization. iv. Access to resources, v. Competence. Team roles: RM Bellbin researched business-game teams at the Carnegie Institute of technology. He developed a picture of the character-mix in team, which many people fine a useful guide to team selection and management. Bellbin suggests effective team is made following eight roles: i. The Co-coordinator. ii. The shaper. iii. The plant. iv The monitor and evaluator. . The resource investigator. vi. The implementer. vii. The team worker. Viii. The finisher. Multi-disciplinary teams: Multi-disciplinary teams bring together individuals with different skills and specialism’s, so that their skills, experience and knowledge can be pooled or exchanged. Teambuilding: The team building goal in this learning journey is to help participants devel op increased awareness of team dynamics, practical skills for maximizing team performance, and developing a belief in the power of teamwork. Team building assists participants in planning specific improvements in the way the team operates. Participants will gain an integrated set of skills that can be applied anytime and anywhere, while enhancing their team performance, leadership abilities, and team unity. The result of applying these skills will be serious TEAMWORK – not teamwork in the ordinary sense, but something stronger, more committed, more productive, and more personal. Team identity: A manager may be able to increase his work groups sense of itself as a team by any or all the following means: i. Giving the team a name. ii. Giving team a badge or uniform. iii. Expressing the team’s self-image. iv. Building a team mythology. Commitment to shared belief: All team members must agree on what the team is trying to accomplish. Teams work much harder if members have a say in team goals and focus. Having team members discuss and decide on team goals would foster this sense of team commitment. P4. 2: Discuss factors that may promote or inhabit the development of effective teamwork in organizations. Group norms: The rules of behavior that are part of the ideology of the group. Norms tend to reflect the values of the group and specify those actions that are proper and those that are inappropriate, as well as rewards for adherence and the punishment for conformity. Group decision-making behavior: As we noted, empowerment involves groups in decision-making. This can be having benefited where: i. Pooling skills, information and ideas. ii. Participation in the decision-making process makes the discussion acceptable of the group. Dysfunctional team: Dysfunctional is defined as â€Å"abnormal or unhealthy interpersonal behavior or interaction within a group†. Most definitions state that a team is dysfunctional when individuals strive to conform to the prevailing thought processes or decisions within the group, at the expense of feelings of individual responsibility or personal views. Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is generally defined as â€Å"the resultant of all forces acting on all the members to remain in the group† (Cartwright, 1968, p. 91). Group cohesiveness is one of the essential concepts for understanding group dynamics (Zander, 1979) studied for its conceptual similarity with teamwork. P4. 3: Evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organization. Technology: Technology teams share a common goal: all members are dedicated to helping writing project site leadership meet local needs and priorities through the wise integration and implementation of technology. But while these tech teams generally have a similar purpose, the ways in which writing project sites have gone about establishing and using their technology teams are as nuanced as the sites themselves. Communication: One way to start developing a communications strategy is to look at the nature of the different kinds of work the team will be doing and what kind of communication is needed to support that work. There is a continuum which describes how individuals (or sub-groups) on the team are working from autonomously to interdependently. For example, there may be some tasks unique to a specific country which team members can do on their own without interacting with anyone else on the team. Other product-related projects may require more collaboration among team members in different parts of the region. Change: All these changes in organizations have changed how teams are formed and how they operate. Teams have changed: From fixed team membership all team members drawn from within the organization team members are dedicated 100% to the team team members are co-located organizationally and geographically teams have a fixed starting and ending point eams are managed by a single manager To shifting team membership team members can include people from outside the organization (clients, collaborators) most people are members of multiple teams team members are distributed organizationally and geographically teams form and reform continuously teams have multiple reporting relationships with different parts of the organizatio n at different times Network and virtual teams: The nature of teams has changed significantly because of changes in organizations and the nature of the work they do. Organizations have become more distributed across geography and across industries. Relationships between people inside an organization and those previously considered outside (customers, suppliers, managers of collaborating organizations, other stakeholders) are becoming more important. Organizations have discovered the value of collaborative work. There is a new emphasis on knowledge management – harvesting the learning of the experience of members of the organization so that it is available to the whole organization. Global and cross-culture teams: Cross-cultural training usually occurs as an integral component of training that's designed primarily to attain a broader objective. Two of GROVEWELL's Global Leadership Programs provide examples. †¢Influencing Colleagues across Organizational Units & Mindsets is primarily about influencing colleagues within global organizations, but is infused with the intercultural perspective. †¢Working Effectively on International Projects is primarily for the managers and staff of global projects; it, too, is infused with the intercultural perspective. Effective teamwork in Sainsbury: General theories of work design suggest that groups can humanize work with group tasks designed to create meaningful work. Team working is associated with higher job satisfaction according to job characteristics and participative management theories. The variety of tasks in teams encourages workers to learn and use different skills and rotate between jobs to reduce the boredom of repetitive work. This enables team members to share a sense of collective responsibility for work in their area and to develop the mix of skills necessary for effective work teams who share both identification with a common task and mutual beliefs. Teams also make possible employee participation in goal setting, thereby enhancing intrinsic motivation for team members. www. sainsburys. co. uk J Sainsbury plc Annual Report and Financial Statements 2005 accessed through www. sainsburys. co. uk) Effective teamwork in Tesco: We treat people how we like to be treated. We want our people to enjoy working at Tesco. Our people do a great job each and every day by giving our customers the best possible shopping trip. By creating an open e nvironment of trust and respect, our people feel supported, they share their knowledge and experience and work hard to give our customers great service. We support our people, trusting in their ability to deliver while helping them to reach their full potential. We encourage our people to learn on the job and take responsibility from day one. Giving our people an opportunity to get on in their careers is very important. With the increasing breadth of the Tesco business, our people have a great opportunity to develop their skills and experience across new product areas, services and countries. Every year, we build our plans for the year around our People Promises. We want all of our people across all of our markets to: †¢ be treated with respect; †¢ have an opportunity to get on; †¢ have a manager who helps them; and †¢ have an interesting job. It’s through our People Promises and our benefits package that we are proud to say that our people stay with us for a long time. Around half of our Director population has at least 12 years’ service. Effective teamwork in Asda: Asda changes Norman outlines – in the way people work together and communicate with each other – are more complex. The company's goal is to become a genuine leader in fresh foods and clothing – making the George brand a ‘real brand', second in the UK to Marks & Spencer's St Michael – and also to create an ‘organization which is the preferred place to work', offering customer service ‘with a personality derived from the heart of the company'. One change has, accordingly, been in the approach to recruitment, which now aims to seek out people for the stores who really do want to serve the customers and who genuinely like selling. There is no point, he remarks, in employing people who won't like the ‘Asda Way of Working'. This is the name given to the new approach, intended to transform the old culture, which had grown autocratic and slow-moving, to one where all members of Asda feel involved in improving the business – the equivalent, within the context of a corporation, of market-stallholders, who run their own show, and who engage actively with their customers. (http://www. managementtoday. co. uk/news/410110/UK-ASDAS-OPEN-PLAN Bibliography: Reference: 1. HNC, HND BTEC Business Course Book, Organization behavior, Unit-3, first edition September 2000, publishing BPP, ISBN 0 7517 70337.

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buy custom Free Case Study Sample about Nurses Performance Issues wich Have a Significant Impact on Nurses Performance Introduction Numerous issues affect the nurses and they have a significant impact on their performance. For instance, the feeling of powerlessness has a negative impact on the ability of nurses to be competent in care services provision. As a result, they face moral dilemmas as well as burnouts, which affect their performance. In order to understand the aspect of powerlessness in the nursing profession, current paper delves into the issue through two scenarios. The first scenario relates to an emergency department whose nurse manager is facing problems after there has been an increase in the turn-over rate, as well as, poor morale. The majority of employees state that the reason for quitting their jobs is a feeling of powerlessness. In the second scenario, there is an intention to make policies related to governance models, and it has to involve the nurses through asking them questions. Current paper aims at offering an in-depth response to the scenarios, and providing critically analyzed answers .

Islamic Geography in the Middle Ages

Islamic Geography in the Middle Ages After the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, the average Europeans knowledge of the world around them was limited to their local area and to maps provided by the religious authorities. The exploration of the fifteenth and sixteenth century would not likely have come as soon as they had, were it not for the geographers of the Islamic world. The Islamic empire began to expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of the prophet and founder of Islam, Mohammed, in 632 AD. Islamic leaders conquered Iran in 641 and in 642 Egypt was under Islamic control. In the eighth century, all of northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), India and Indonesia became Islamic lands. The Muslims were stopped at France by their defeat at the Battle of Tours in 732. Nonetheless, Islamic rule continued on the Iberian Peninsula for nearly nine centuries. Around 762, Baghdad became the intellectual capital of the empire and issued a request for books from throughout the world. Traders were given the weight of the book in gold. Over time, Baghdad accumulated a wealth of knowledge and many key geographical works from the Greeks and Romans. Ptolemys Almagest, which was a reference to the location and movement of heavenly bodies along with his Geography, a description of the world and a gazetteer of places, were two of the first books translated, thus keeping their information in existence. With their extensive libraries, the Islamic view of the world between 800 and 1400 was much more accurate than the Christian view of the world. Role of Exploration in the Koran The Muslims were natural explorers since the Koran (the first book written in Arabic) mandated a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca for every able-bodied male at least once in their life. With thousands traveling from the farthest reaches of the Islamic Empire to Mecca, dozens of travel guides were written to assist in the trip. Pilgrimage during the seventh to the tenth month of the Islamic calendar each year led to further exploration beyond the Arabian Peninsula. By the eleventh century, Islamic traders had explored the eastern coast of Africa to 20 degrees south of the Equator (near contemporary Mozambique). Islamic geography was primarily a continuation of the Greek and Roman scholarship which had been lost in Christian Europe. There were some additions to the collective knowledge by their geographers, especially Al-Idrisi, Ibn-Batuta, and Ibn-Khaldun. Al-Idrisi (also transliterated as Edrisi, 1099-1166 or 1180) served King Roger II of Sicily. He worked for the king in Palermo and wrote a geography of the world called Amusement for Him Who Desires to Travel Around the World which wasnt translated into Latin until 1619. He determined the circumference of the earth to be about 23,000 miles (it is actually 24,901.55 miles). Ibn-Batuta (1304-1369 or 1377) is known as the Muslim Marco Polo. In 1325 he traveled to Mecca for a pilgrimage and while there decided to devote his life to travel. Among other places, he visited Africa, Russia, India, and China. He served the Chinese Emperor, the Mongol Emperor, and the Islamic Sultan in a variety of diplomatic positions. During his life, he traveled approximately 75,000 miles, which at the time was farther than anyone else in the world had traveled. He dictated a book which was an encyclopedia of Islamic practices around the world. Ibn-Khaldun (1332-1406) wrote a comprehensive world history and geography. He discussed the effects of the environment on humans so he is known as one of the first environmental determinists. He felt that the northern and southern extremes of the earth were the least civilized. Historical Role of Islamic Scholarship By translating important Greek and Roman texts and by contributing to the knowledge of the world, Islamic scholars helped provide the information which allowed the discovery and exploration of the New World in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Owing to vs Due to

Owing to vs Due to Owing to vs Due to Owing to vs Due to By Maeve Maddox Steve Campbell asks for a post on â€Å"the choice between due to and owing to. There was a time that I felt very strongly about the difference between due to and owing to, zealously correcting misuse in student papers. After all, one of my most esteemed authorities, H.W. Fowler, has this to say in Modern English Usage: Under the influence of ANALOGY, due to is often used by the illiterate as though it had passed, like owing to, into a mere compound preposition. He gives such examples as these of due to being used incorrectly: The old trade union movement is a dead horse, largely due to the incompetency of the leaders. Rooks, probably due to the fact that they are so often shot at, have a profound distrust of man. The perceived error is that due to must be attached to a noun and not, says Fowler, to a notion extracted from a sentence . . . it is not the horse, [or] the distrust of the rooksthat are due, but the failure of the movement, the distrust of the rooks . . . Even now, I reach for an index card when I hear the local weatherman say, â€Å"The road is closed due to flooding.† Then I remind myself that the difference between due to and owing to is as much a dead horse as the â€Å"old trade union movement† in Fowler’s example. For those who wish to go on beating the horse, due to is adjectival and owing to is adverbial. The road was closed owing to flooding. For the road to be due to anything, it would have to be something that influenced the existence of the road: The road was due to the efforts of local citizens who voted to raise taxes for its construction. Here are two more examples for the sake of comparison: His accident was due to excessive alcohol consumption. His accident occurred owing to the fact that he was talking on his cell phone. For most English speakers due to and owing to have become interchangeable. Trying to preserve a distinction between them is pointless. I’d rather direct my energy to the defense of â€Å"I† as a subject pronoun. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Arrive To vs. Arrive AtCapitalization Rules for Names of Historical Periods and MovementsCaptain vs. Master

Health Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health - Article Example This issue can easily affect all 7 of the areas of health. Because it is a mental and emotional fear, it easily can have negative repercussions on the mental, emotional, and intellectual areas of health. The irrationality of this fear could also have repercussions on my physical, financial, social, and spiritual health. Because I might be afraid of being alone, I may not exercise unless I could do it with a group, which may not always be able to happen. I may have to spend money on helping my condition, which would have an effect on my financial health. My fear of being alone/ of my self could also cause me to try to always be with people, something my friends may not like. It however, could possibly have a positive impact on my spiritual health, as I may turn to the divine to try to help me with my condition. Autophobia, because it is a "phobia", or fear condition, it is hard to find exactly how many people are affected. I was unable to find exact numbers, however one website refereed to it as a "common, although often unspoken" phobia. I have found several different organizations that are involved with helping people deal with this phobia. One is CTRN(Change That's Right Now) Phobia Clinic.

Contract Law Problem Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Contract Law Problem Question - Essay Example According to Beatson and Anson, contract law is defined as the branch of law that ensures legal binding of the promise between two parties and makes them fulfill it. Whereas French Civil Code defines contract law as convention and agreement in which one party or several parties bind themselves to serve a specific purpose or to restrain from some. So, all in all what contract law adhere is that there lie a duty on both parties in a contract to execute their obligations. The ultimate examination of both the definitions of English Law and French Law confirms some essential features of the contractual relationship and that is the performance of the contract. Contractual performance is sole principle of contract law which must be kept and fulfilled at any cost. This principle of contract law is the backbone of the whole contractual relationship2. Generally the contract law is defined as an agreement that creates obligation enforceable by law. This obligation is based upon the mutual accep tance, consideration, legality and capacity to perform. In this process of conformity, fulfilment and binding, there may arise number of problems if in case contract is not implemented properly or if one party rejects to perform according to the obligations. Thousands of contracts are agreed upon and signed in the world every day and most of them are not performed in their full essence according to the terms3. Whilst many of them are resolved by negotiations and discussions but there comes cases under which hostilities are not that easy to resolve breach of contract informally. In this regard law provides remedial measures to provide justice to distressed party. These remedies help aggrieved party to either recover performance based upon the contract or ensure provision of some compensation for the damage caused by the breach of contract. Some possible remedies renowned for breach of

Egyptian and Greek Art History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Egyptian and Greek Art History - Essay Example The earliest forms of art in Greece are found in the archaic era.   The different forms of art were pottery, sculpture, architecture, and painting.   In comparison to Egyptian art, the Greek art was underdeveloped. The Egyptians had already made breakthroughs in the construction of the pyramids by the time the Greeks started acknowledging architecture. The painting in Egypt is governed by the use of specific colours that have specific meanings. Egyptian art was limited to the use of six colours. This was not the case of early painting in Greek, which focused on pottery. Artists were allowed to express themselves freely.   Greek artists were allowed to be creative and pass a message using art. This was not the case in Egypt where artists were hired to work as a part of a team. The lead artists did not receive any credit for the work. All the credit went to the person who had commissioned the painting.   It also explains why most Egyptian paintings contained particular messages as opposed to Greek art, which was a free expression of the human form as the artist wanted it.   Civilization in Egypt was deeply rooted in religion, which explains why most works of art were inspired by religion.   Many artworks all through the history of Egypt represented gods and goddesses in Egyptian culture.   This led to the development of strict rules on how humans and gods can be represented in painting. Greek’s art was inspired by creativity, which is evidenced by the expressions seen in their sculptures.

Ethics project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics project - Essay Example Practicing the ethical requirements help in ensuring safety, health and the welfare of organizations and individuals because of the closeness in human and business relations. Engineers must abide by the code of ethics as stipulated by the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE). The code articulates the significance of the decisions made by engineers that require full concentration, honesty, fairness and integrity. The misdeed by the responsible engineer is determined by his actions towards agreeing to sign off the project as complete in full knowledge that the software contained a bug. According to the prototype tests, a high number of airplanes led to the disappearance of one of them from the system. However, the boss convinced the engineer that the FAA would not detect the problem since she was aware of their testing methods (McFarland 1). As such, the boss managed to persuade the engineer to sign and as a result, with the full knowledge of the error in the software, the engineer signed off the software. In this case, the responsible engineer had the option of declining the signing off and delivery of the software to FAA until the error was corrected. With such an error, the software could mislead the traffic control personnel and lead to an air disaster. Such disasters lead to the destruction of property and loss of life. The responsible engineers can be held responsible for such disasters in a court of law. Additionally, such a misdeed can lead to the loss of practicing license as an engineer, blacklisting, being fired and a jail term. After signing the software off and delivering it to the FAA, the engineer broke several codes of ethics by deliberately approving a faulty software. According to the NSPE codes, the engineer breached Section 1.5 of the NSPE Code of Ethics that state, â€Å"Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall avoid deceptive acts.† The engineer also broke Section II.1.b of the NSPE

Poem Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Poem - Research Paper Example And luckily comes to an end. Just like the rest of the poem, woman in this stanza also gains some relieve for her weeping (Bogan). This stanza is powerful because it salutes and congratulates the less fortunate ones. E.g., the older wife â€Å"who has been cured of feeling unwanted† and soon is at home and becomes jubilant for this (Bogan). In general, this stanza shows that human beings live in quiet desperation where there are wrenching emotions, mental patients, and bizarre behavior have come a happy ending. This is seen in the last line of this stanza where this woman is given possible chances to meet new person and home to live in. The woman discussed in this stanza can be summarized as a being and metaphorically petrified (Bogan). In conclusion, this whole poem is made of mutual bonds that are found in modernism. This bond is found in various different types of work that was produced alongside other modernism examples. I, therefore, conclude that this poem is an ironically moving

Ethics project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics project - Essay Example Practicing the ethical requirements help in ensuring safety, health and the welfare of organizations and individuals because of the closeness in human and business relations. Engineers must abide by the code of ethics as stipulated by the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE). The code articulates the significance of the decisions made by engineers that require full concentration, honesty, fairness and integrity. The misdeed by the responsible engineer is determined by his actions towards agreeing to sign off the project as complete in full knowledge that the software contained a bug. According to the prototype tests, a high number of airplanes led to the disappearance of one of them from the system. However, the boss convinced the engineer that the FAA would not detect the problem since she was aware of their testing methods (McFarland 1). As such, the boss managed to persuade the engineer to sign and as a result, with the full knowledge of the error in the software, the engineer signed off the software. In this case, the responsible engineer had the option of declining the signing off and delivery of the software to FAA until the error was corrected. With such an error, the software could mislead the traffic control personnel and lead to an air disaster. Such disasters lead to the destruction of property and loss of life. The responsible engineers can be held responsible for such disasters in a court of law. Additionally, such a misdeed can lead to the loss of practicing license as an engineer, blacklisting, being fired and a jail term. After signing the software off and delivering it to the FAA, the engineer broke several codes of ethics by deliberately approving a faulty software. According to the NSPE codes, the engineer breached Section 1.5 of the NSPE Code of Ethics that state, â€Å"Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall avoid deceptive acts.† The engineer also broke Section II.1.b of the NSPE

Commercial Free Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Commercial Free Speech - Essay Example Emphasis is placed on the problem of spam on the commercial free speech. The argument in relation to the ethical agreement of commercial spam emphasizes upon the moral standard in terms of the freedom of expression among individuals. Globally the freedom of expression among individuals is protected as a result of the benefits that are associated with the application of freedom of expression. Thus, freedom of expression is an important requisite in a liberal democratic state. The freedom of expression entails commercial forms of expression such as the use of spam (Spinello, 2006). Spam should therefore be protected as a commercial free speech. This is attributed to the fact that if the use of such spams are not protected various contents that can be considered as harmful may be consumed by individuals. This protection will therefore entail various forms of restrictions that will ensure that only credible form of information is consumed by the audience. Various countries such as China and United States have engaged in some form of restriction of spam as a commercial free speech in order to take care of such contents such as pornography (Rooksby, 2007). However, there are enough reasons in relation to the fact that commercial expression should not be protected as a form of free speech among individuals. Commercial expressions in its essence do not promote truth as an essential aspect in free speech or freedom of expression. Furthermore, spams are not known to promote the beliefs or opinions of individuals in the freedom of expression. Thus, the use of spam as a commercial expression should not be protection as it does not promote truth in its expression (Rooksby, 2007). Additionally, citizens of any particular state have a right in regards to freedom of expression. This right to liberty therefore guarantees an individual with a right to

Ways in which Arthur Miller creates tension in the first act Essay Example for Free

Ways in which Arthur Miller creates tension in the first act Essay In this essay I am going to explore the ways in which the writer, Arthur Miller, creates tension in the first act of The Crucible. Some of the techniques he uses, and I am going to analyse are: pace, fear of witchcraft, disagreements, and the relationships between the characters. The play includes moments in which the pace is slow, this provides a contrast to the moments of climax, when the pace quickens. As there is a change in pace which the readers and viewers cant expect, the tension increases. For example, the scene in which a psalm is gently sung when, suddenly, Betty starts screaming. The play begins steadily and calmly, no tension is thought to be created. The upper bedroom in the home of Reverend Samuel Parris is slowly described, it gives the impression of being a peaceful place. There is a narrow window at the left. Through its leaded panes the morning sunlight streams. A candle still burns near the bed, which is at the right. Some characters introductions and speeches also make the action go slower. Some examples are the introduction of Reverend John Hale Mr Hale is nearing forty, a tight-skinned, eager-eyed intellectual. and the experienced, comforting speech of Rebecca Nurse when Mr Putnam asks her to see if she can wake up his daughter: I think shell wake in time. Pray calm yourselves. I have eleven children, and I am twenty-six times a grandma, and I have seen them all through their silly seasons ( ) These slow scenes give extra emphasis to the parts in which the speed of the scene increases by the things that happen or people say. Any important exclamation in any dialogue or threats to other characters can make the pace change in this way. Some examples are: Abigail Williams threatens Mercy and Betty to be quiet about what really happened the night on the forest.

Theories Of Intellectual Property Philosophy Essay

Theories Of Intellectual Property Philosophy Essay Introduction: The term intellectual property refers to a loose cluster of legal doctrines that regulate the uses of different sorts of ideas and insignia.   The law of copyright protects various original forms of expression. The economic and cultural importance of this collection of rules is increasing rapidly. And lawmakers throughout the world are busily revising their intellectual-property laws.  [1]  Partly as a result of these trends, scholarly interest in the field has risen dramatically in recent years. There has been an evident mushrooming of articles deploying theories of intellectual property in law reviews and in journals of economics and philosophy. This article discusses those theories, evaluates them, and considers the roles they do and ought to play in lawmaking. Different jurisprudential approaches in IP law making: Most of the recent theoretical writings consist of struggles among and within four jurisprudential approaches of intellectual property law. 1.2.1 Utilitarian aspect of IP jurisprudence: The first and most popular of the four employs the familiar utilitarian guideline that lawmakers must put emphasis on maximization of net social welfare while shaping property rights.   In the context of intellectual property, it is generally thought that, lawmakers must strike an optimal balance between, on one hand, the individual rights of the creator and on the other hand maximization of public interest. A good example in this regard is William Landess and Richard Posners essay on copyright law  [2]  .   The distinctive characteristics of most intellectual products are that they are easily replicated. Those characteristics in combination create a danger that the creators of such products will be unable to recoup their costs of expression (i.e. the time and effort devoted to writing or composing and the costs of negotiating with publishers or record companies), because they will be undercut by copyists who bear only the low costs of production (the costs of manufacturing and distributing books or CDs) and thus can offer consumers identical products at very low prices.   Awareness of this danger will deter creators from making socially valuable intellectual products in the first instance.   We can avoid this by allocating to the creators (for limited times) the exclusive right to make copies of their creations. All of the various alternative ways in which creators might be em powered to recover their costs are, for one reason or another, more wasteful of social resources.  [3]  Ã‚   This utilitarian rationale, however has been criticized on the ground of its tendency to create monopoly rights. A related argument dominates the trademark law. The primary economic benefits of trademarks, are (1) the reduction of consumers search costs, because consumers can rely upon their prior experiences with various brands while deciding which brand to buy in future, and (2) the creation of an incentive for businesses to produce consistently high-quality goods and services. On the other hand while dealing with its criticism, trademarks can sometimes be socially harmful also, like for example, by enabling the first entrant into a market to discourage competition by appropriating for itself an especially attractive or informative brand name. Awareness of these benefits and harms should (and usually does), guide legislators and judges when tuning trademark law; marks should be (and usually are) protected when they are socially beneficial and not when they are, on balance, deleterious.  [4]   1.2.2 Labour theory and its jurisprudential aspect: Robert Nozick  [5]  after associating himself with Lockes argument, Nozick turns his attention to Lockes famously ambiguous proviso the proposition that a person may legitimately acquire property rights by mixing his labor with resources held in common only if, after the acquisition, there is enough and as good left in common for others.  [6]   Nozick contends that the correct interpretation of this limitation is that the acquisition of property through labor is legitimate if and only if other persons do not suffer thereby any net harm. Construed in this fashion, the Lockean proviso is not violated, Nozick argues, by the assignment of a patent right to an inventor because, although other persons access to the invention is undoubtedly limited by the issuance of the patent, the invention would not have existed at all had the inventor not put in any effort due to fear of copying. 1.2.3 Personality theory and its jurisprudential aspect: The premise of the third approach derived loosely from the writings of Kant and Hegel i.e. private property rights are crucial to the satisfaction of some fundamental human needs; policymakers should thus strive to create and allocate entitlements to resources in the fashion that best enables people to fulfill those needs. From this standpoint, intellectual property rights may be justified either on the ground that they shield from appropriation or modification artifacts through which authors and artists have expressed their wills (an activity thought central to personhood) or on the ground that they create social and economic conditions conducive to creative intellectual activity, which in turn is important to human flourishing.  [7]   Justin Hughes derives from Hegels Philosophy of Rights the following guidelines concerning the proper shape of an intellectual-property system (a) We should be more willing to accord legal protection to the fruits of highly expressive intellectual activities, (b) Because a persons persona his public image, including his physical features, mannerisms, and history is an important part of personality, it deserves generous legal protection, despite the fact that ordinarily it does not result from labor (c) Authors and inventors should be permitted to earn respect, honor, admiration, and money from the public by selling or giving away copies of their works.  [8]   1.2.4 Social planning theory and its jurisprudential aspect: The last of the four approaches says that, property rights in general and intellectual-property rights in particular can and should be shaped so as to help foster the achievement of a just and attractive culture.   This approach is similar to utilitarianism in its orientation, but dissimilar in its willingness to deploy visions of a desirable society richer than the conceptions of social welfare deployed by utilitarians.  [9]   Other writers who have approached intellectual-property law from similar perspectives include Keith Aoki, Rosemary Coombe  [10]  , Niva Elkin-Koren, and Michael Madow.  [11]  As yet, however, this fourth approach is less well established and recognized than the other three. 1.3 Varying jurisprudential views in US, UK, France and Germany: Until recently, the personality theory had much less currency in American law.  However in contrast, it has figured very prominently in Europe.  The French and German copyright regimes, for example, have been strongly shaped by the writings of Kant and Hegel.   This influence is especially evident in the generous protection those countries provide for authors and artists rights. In the past two decades, moral-rights doctrine and the philosophic perspective on which it rests have found increasing favor with American lawmakers, as evidenced most clearly by the proliferation of state art-preservation statutes and the recent adoption of the federal Visual Artists Rights Act.  [12]   Critical analysis of the theories of IP jurisprudence: Lawmakers are confronted these days with many difficult questions involving rights to control information. The proponents of all four leading theories purport to provide lawmakers with answers to the upcoming questions in IP jurisprudence. Unfortunately, our choice among these four options will often make a big difference. The third, for instance, suggests that we should insist, before issuing a patent or other intellectual-property right, that the discovery in question must satisfy a meaningful utility requirement; the other three would not.  The second would counsel against conferring legal rights on artists who love their work; the other three point in the opposite direction. The fourth would suggest that we add to copyright law a requirement analogous to the patent doctrine of nonobviousness; the others would not.  In short, a lawmakers inability to choose among the four will often be disabling. Similar troubles arise when one tries to apply Lockes conception of the commons to the field of intellectual property.  What exactly are the raw materials, owned by the community as a whole, with which individual workers mix their labor in order to produce intellectual products? It is agreed that IP law would have to be radically revised to conform to the Lockean scheme.  But the scale of the necessary revision is daunting. Is it justifiable on Lockean or any other premises -that if one thinks of a new way of dancing he claim IP protection and prevent everybody else from doing the same? Similarly, by registering the trademark Nike, can one prevent others from using it in any way- including reproducing it in an essay on intellectual property? If not, then what Is the extent of these rights? We come, finally, to the well-known problem of proportionality. Nozick asks:  If I pour my can of tomato juice into the ocean, do I own the ocean?  How far, in short, do my rights go?   Locke gives us little guidance.  [13]   1.5 Conclusion: The limitations of the guidance provided by general theories of intellectual property is perhaps easiest to see with respect to the last of the four approaches.  Lawmakers who try to harness social-planning theory must make difficult choices at two levels.  The first and most obvious involves formulating a vision of a just and attractive culture. What sort of society should we try, through adjustments of copyright, patent, and trademark law, to promote?   The possibilities are endless. Through continued conversations among scholars, legislators, judges, litigants, lobbyists, and the public at large, there may lie some hope of addressing the inadequacies of the existing theories.  The analytical difficulties associated with the effort to apply the Lockean version of labor theory to intellectual property may well prove insurmountable, but there may be some non-Lockean way of capturing the popular intuition that the law should reward people for hard work.  Only by continuing to discuss the possibility and trying to bring some alternative variant of labor theory to bear on real cases can we hope to make progress.   Much the same can be said of the gaps in personality theory.   The conception of selfhood employed by current theorists may be too thin and acontextual to provide lawmakers much purchase on doctrinal problems.  But perhaps, through continued reflection and conversation, we can do better. Conversational uses of intellectual property theories of the sort sketched above would be different from the way in which such theories most often have been deployed in the past.  Instead of trying to compel readers, through a combination of noncontroversial premises and inexorable logic, to accept a particular interpretation or reform of legal doctrine, the jurists and lawmakers should attempt, by deploying a combination of theory and application, to strike a chord of sympathy in their audience.  The sought-after response would not be, I cant see any loopholes in the argument, but rather, it needs to be acknowledged and addressed. That conclusion, however, does not imply that the theories have no practical use.  [14]  In two respects, I suggest, they retain considerable value.  First, while they have failed to make good on their promises to provide comprehensive prescriptions concerning the ideal shape of intellectual-property law, they can help identify nonobvious attractive resolutions of particular problems. Second, they can foster valuable conversations among the various participants in the lawmaking process.